The Case Studies Blog Harvard Law School. Skip to content. Home About Us Follow Us Discussion Forum. Top Challenges for Case Study Programs Posted on May 26, by Elizabeth Moroney. Together, the panelists identified key challenges facing case study programs at Harvard and beyond: Poor visibility. A searchable index of all available case materials is a fundamental resource, but surprisingly challenging to achieve when instructors write case studies for their own courses. This index must be featured prominently in faculty onboarding or resource pages; ideally, faculty would receive formal pedagogical training or advising on available curricular resources.

HKS also reaches out to instructors directly, suggesting a few new case studies specifically tailored to their course s. Few role models and mentors. The prevalence of poorly-facilitated case discussions can undermine support for case method teaching, but a skilled, energizing case teacher can transform student learning and inspire fellow faculty. Case study programs need respected opinion leaders on the faculty to act as champions; if such role models also direct or supervise case programs, the programs themselves can develop from this galvanizing leadership.

Incentive structure. Faculty members are typically promoted based primarily on research and scholarship, while teaching is thought to be weighted less. We need career incentives for faculty to stay on the cutting edge of pedagogy. In the interim, we can make the case development effort worthwhile for faculty by dovetailing case topics with faculty research interests, so that there is a greater return on investment for case research. Lack of testing environments. Instructors need spaces to test new teaching styles outside of the classroom. Workshops where instructors test-teach short cases and see peer approaches would increase success, confidence, and ease for new case teachers.

Sampling a "deviant" or "atypical" case may however prove even more informative, potentially enabling the researcher to identify causal processes, generate hypotheses and develop theory. In collective or multiple case studies, a number of cases are carefully selected. Choosing a "typical" case may enable the findings to be generalised to theory i. analytical generalisation or to test theory by replicating the findings in a second or even a third case i. replication logic [ 1 ]. Yin suggests two or three literal replications i. predicting similar results if the theory is straightforward and five or more if the theory is more subtle. However, critics might argue that selecting 'cases' in this way is insufficiently reflexive and ill-suited to the complexities of contemporary healthcare organisations.

The selected case study site s should allow the research team access to the group of individuals, the organisation, the processes or whatever else constitutes the chosen unit of analysis for the study. Access is therefore a central consideration; the researcher needs to come to know the case study site s well and to work cooperatively with them. Selected cases need to be not only interesting but also hospitable to the inquiry [ 8 ] if they are to be informative and answer the research question s. Case study sites may also be pre-selected for the researcher, with decisions being influenced by key stakeholders. This prominent stakeholder had already selected the NHS sites through a competitive bidding process to be early adopters of the electronic health record systems and had negotiated contracts that detailed the deployment timelines.

It is also important to consider in advance the likely burden and risks associated with participation for those who or the site s which comprise the case study. Of particular importance is the obligation for the researcher to think through the ethical implications of the study e. The outcome of providing this information might be that the emotive burden associated with participation, or the organisational disruption associated with supporting the fieldwork, is considered so high that the individuals or sites decide against participation. In our example of evaluating implementations of electronic health record systems, given the restricted number of early adopter sites available to us, we sought purposively to select a diverse range of implementation cases among those that were available[ 5 ].

We chose a mixture of teaching, non-teaching and Foundation Trust hospitals, and examples of each of the three electronic health record systems procured centrally by the NPfIT. At one recruited site, it quickly became apparent that access was problematic because of competing demands on that organisation. Recognising the importance of full access and co-operative working for generating rich data, the research team decided not to pursue work at that site and instead to focus on other recruited sites. In order to develop a thorough understanding of the case, the case study approach usually involves the collection of multiple sources of evidence, using a range of quantitative e.

questionnaires, audits and analysis of routinely collected healthcare data and more commonly qualitative techniques e. interviews, focus groups and observations. The use of multiple sources of data data triangulation has been advocated as a way of increasing the internal validity of a study i. the extent to which the method is appropriate to answer the research question [ 8 , 18 - 21 ]. Brazier and colleagues used a mixed-methods case study approach to investigate the impact of a cancer care programme[ 22 ]. Here, quantitative measures were collected with questionnaires before, and five months after, the start of the intervention which did not yield any statistically significant results.

Qualitative interviews with patients however helped provide an insight into potentially beneficial process-related aspects of the programme, such as greater, perceived patient involvement in care. The authors reported how this case study approach provided a number of contextual factors likely to influence the effectiveness of the intervention and which were not likely to have been obtained from quantitative methods alone. In collective or multiple case studies, data collection needs to be flexible enough to allow a detailed description of each individual case to be developed e. the nature of different cancer care programmes , before considering the emerging similarities and differences in cross-case comparisons e.

to explore why one programme is more effective than another. It is important that data sources from different cases are, where possible, broadly comparable for this purpose even though they may vary in nature and depth. Making sense and offering a coherent interpretation of the typically disparate sources of data whether qualitative alone or together with quantitative is far from straightforward. Repeated reviewing and sorting of the voluminous and detail-rich data are integral to the process of analysis. In collective case studies, it is helpful to analyse data relating to the individual component cases first, before making comparisons across cases. Attention needs to be paid to variations within each case and, where relevant, the relationship between different causes, effects and outcomes[ 23 ].

Data will need to be organised and coded to allow the key issues, both derived from the literature and emerging from the dataset, to be easily retrieved at a later stage. An initial coding frame can help capture these issues and can be applied systematically to the whole dataset with the aid of a qualitative data analysis software package. Theoretical frameworks may also play an important role in integrating different sources of data and examining emerging themes. Case study findings can have implications both for theory development and theory testing. They may establish, strengthen or weaken historical explanations of a case and, in certain circumstances, allow theoretical as opposed to statistical generalisation beyond the particular cases studied[ 12 ].

These theoretical lenses should not, however, constitute a strait-jacket and the cases should not be "forced to fit" the particular theoretical framework that is being employed. When reporting findings, it is important to provide the reader with enough contextual information to understand the processes that were followed and how the conclusions were reached. In a collective case study, researchers may choose to present the findings from individual cases separately before amalgamating across cases. Care must be taken to ensure the anonymity of both case sites and individual participants if agreed in advance by allocating appropriate codes or withholding descriptors.

The case study approach is, as with all research, not without its limitations. The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted on the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources. This highlights a more general point of the importance of avoiding the temptation to collect as much data as possible; adequate time also needs to be set aside for data analysis and interpretation of what are often highly complex datasets. Case study research has sometimes been criticised for lacking scientific rigour and providing little basis for generalisation i. producing findings that may be transferable to other settings [ 1 ].

There are several ways to address these concerns, including: the use of theoretical sampling i. drawing on a particular conceptual framework ; respondent validation i. Transparency can be achieved by describing in detail the steps involved in case selection, data collection, the reasons for the particular methods chosen, and the researcher's background and level of involvement i. being explicit about how the researcher has influenced data collection and interpretation. Seeking potential, alternative explanations, and being explicit about how interpretations and conclusions were reached, help readers to judge the trustworthiness of the case study report. Stake's checklist for assessing the quality of a case study report[ 8 ].

The case study approach allows, amongst other things, critical events, interventions, policy developments and programme-based service reforms to be studied in detail in a real-life context. It should therefore be considered when an experimental design is either inappropriate to answer the research questions posed or impossible to undertake. Considering the frequency with which implementations of innovations are now taking place in healthcare settings and how well the case study approach lends itself to in-depth, complex health service research, we believe this approach should be more widely considered by researchers. Though inherently challenging, the research case study can, if carefully conceptualised and thoughtfully undertaken and reported, yield powerful insights into many important aspects of health and healthcare delivery.

AS conceived this article. SC, KC and AR wrote this paper with GH, AA and AS all commenting on various drafts. SC and AS are guarantors. We are grateful to the participants and colleagues who contributed to the individual case studies that we have drawn on. This work received no direct funding, but it has been informed by projects funded by Asthma UK, the NHS Service Delivery Organisation, NHS Connecting for Health Evaluation Programme, and Patient Safety Research Portfolio. We would also like to thank the expert reviewers for their insightful and constructive feedback. Our thanks are also due to Dr. Allison Worth who commented on an earlier draft of this manuscript. Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation. BMC Med Res Methodol. Published online Jun doi: PMCID: PMC Sarah Crowe , 1 Kathrin Cresswell , 2 Ann Robertson , 2 Guro Huby , 3 Anthony Avery , 1 and Aziz Sheikh 2.

Sarah Crowe 1 Division of Primary Care, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK Find articles by Sarah Crowe. Kathrin Cresswell 2 Centre for Population Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK Find articles by Kathrin Cresswell. Ann Robertson 2 Centre for Population Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK Find articles by Ann Robertson. Guro Huby 3 School of Health in Social Science, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK Find articles by Guro Huby. Anthony Avery 1 Division of Primary Care, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK Find articles by Anthony Avery.

Aziz Sheikh 2 Centre for Population Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK Find articles by Aziz Sheikh. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Corresponding author. Sarah Crowe: ku. mahgnitton eworc. haras ; Kathrin Cresswell: ku. de reyeb. nirhtak ; Ann Robertson: ku. de nostrebor. a ; Guro Huby: ku. de ybuh. orug ; Anthony Avery: ku. mahgnitton yreva. ynot ; Aziz Sheikh: ku. de hkiehs. Received Nov 29; Accepted Jun Copyright © Crowe et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. Abstract The case study approach allows in-depth, multi-faceted explorations of complex issues in their real-life settings. Introduction The case study approach is particularly useful to employ when there is a need to obtain an in-depth appreciation of an issue, event or phenomenon of interest, in its natural real-life context.

Table 1 Example of a case study investigating the reasons for differences in recruitment rates of minority ethnic people in asthma research[ 3 ]. Context: Minority ethnic people experience considerably greater morbidity from asthma than the White majority population. Research has shown however that these minority ethnic populations are likely to be under-represented in research undertaken in the UK; there is comparatively less marginalisation in the US. Objective: To investigate approaches to bolster recruitment of South Asians into UK asthma studies through qualitative research with US and UK researchers, and UK community leaders. Study design: Single intrinsic case study The case: Centred on the issue of recruitment of South Asian people with asthma.

Data collection: In-depth interviews were conducted with asthma researchers from the UK and US. A supplementary questionnaire was also provided to researchers. Analysis: Framework approach. The attitudes of the researchers' towards inclusion: The majority of UK researchers interviewed were generally supportive of the idea of recruiting ethnically diverse participants but expressed major concerns about the practicalities of achieving this; in contrast, the US researchers appeared much more committed to the policy of inclusion. Stereotypes and prejudices: We found that some of the UK researchers' perceptions of ethnic minorities may have influenced their decisions on whether to approach individuals from particular ethnic groups.

These stereotypes centred on issues to do with, amongst others, language barriers and lack of altruism. Demographic, political and socioeconomic contexts of the two countries: Researchers suggested that the demographic profile of ethnic minorities, their political engagement and the different configuration of the health services in the UK and the US may have contributed to differential rates. Open in a separate window. Table 2 Example of a case study investigating the process of planning and implementing a service in Primary Care Organisations[ 4 ]. Context: Health work forces globally are needing to reorganise and reconfigure in order to meet the challenges posed by the increased numbers of people living with long-term conditions in an efficient and sustainable manner.

Through studying the introduction of General Practitioners with a Special Interest in respiratory disorders, this study aimed to provide insights into this important issue by focusing on community respiratory service development. Objective: To understand and compare the process of workforce change in respiratory services and the impact on patient experience specifically in relation to the role of general practitioners with special interests in a theoretically selected sample of Primary Care Organisations PCOs , in order to derive models of good practice in planning and the implementation of a broad range of workforce issues.

Study design: Multiple-case design of respiratory services in health regions in England and Wales. The cases: Four PCOs. Data collection: Face-to-face and telephone interviews, e-mail discussions, local documents, patient diaries, news items identified from local and national websites, national workshop. Analysis: Reading, coding and comparison progressed iteratively. In the screening phase of this study which involved semi-structured telephone interviews with the person responsible for driving the reconfiguration of respiratory services in 30 PCOs , the barriers of financial deficit, organisational uncertainty, disengaged clinicians and contradictory policies proved insurmountable for many PCOs to developing sustainable services.

Brenda's parents were also dishonest, stating that the surgery was a success, when in fact that wasn't the case. As Brenda grew up, she always acted masculine and was teased for it at school. She did not socialize as a girl, and did not identify as a female. When Brenda was 13 she learned the truth, and was incredibly relieved. She changed her name to David, and lived the rest of her life as a male. This case proved that the general theory was wrong, and is still valuable, even though the study author was dishonest. Case studies have the ability to give insight into phenomena that cannot be learned in any other way.

An example of this is the case study about Sidney Bradford. Bradford was blind from the age of 10 months old, and regained his sight at the age of 52 from a corneal transplant. This unique situation allowed researchers to better learn how perception and motion changes when suddenly given sight. They were able to better understand how colors and dimensions affect the human process. For what it is worth, Bradford continued to live and work with his eyes closed, as he found sight too stimulating. Stanley Milgram did a study from to in which he studied the effects of social pressure. The study was set up as an independent laboratory.

A random person would walk in, and agree to be a part of the study. He was told to act as a teacher, and ask questions to another volunteer, who was the learner. The teacher would ask the learner questions, and whenever he answered incorrectly, the teacher was instructed to give the learner an electric shock. Each time the learner was wrong, the shock would be increased by 15 volts. What the teacher didn't know was that the learner was a part of the experiment, and that no shocks were being given. However, the learner did act as if they were being shocked. If the teachers tried to quit, they were strongly pushed to continue.

The goal of the experiment was to see whether or not any of the teachers would go up to the highest voltage. This study opened eyes when it comes to social pressure. If someone tells you it is okay to hurt someone, at what point will the person back off and say "this is not ok! This study opened up the sociological world of understanding the divide between social pressure and morality. As demonstrated with the Genie case study, many studies cannot be replicated, and therefore, cannot be corroborated. Because the studies cannot be replicated, it means the data and results are only valid for that one person. Also, Genie was a white, American female.

We do not know whether someone with a different gender, race or ethnicity would have a different result. Key Term! Hawthorne Effect. The effect in which people change their behavior when they are aware they are being observed. When conducting a case study, it is very possible for the author to form a bias. This bias can be for the subject; the form of data collection, or the way the data is interpreted. This is very common, since it is normal for humans to be subjective. It is well known that Sigmund Freud, the father of psychology, was often biased in his case histories and interpretations. The researcher can become close to a study participant, or may learn to identify with the subject. When this happens the researcher loses their perspective as an outsider.

Any classification is not possible due to studying a small unit. This generalization of results is limited, since the study is only focusing on one small group. However, this isn't always a problem, especially if generalization is not one of the study's goals. Case studies can be very time consuming. The data collection process can be very intensive and long, and this is something new researchers are not familiar with. It takes a long period of time to develop a case study, and develop a detailed analysis. Many studies also require the authors to immerse themselves in the case. For example, in the Genie case, the lead researchers spent an abnormal amount of time with Genie, since so few people knew how to handle her.

David Rigler, one of the lead researchers, actually had Genie live with him and his family for years.

The new PMC design is here! Learn more about navigating our updated article layout. The PMC legacy view will also be available for a limited time. Federal government websites often end in. gov or. The site is secure. The case study approach allows in-depth, multi-faceted explorations of complex issues in their real-life settings. The value of the case study approach is well recognised in the fields of business, law and policy, but somewhat less so in health services research. Based on our experiences of conducting several health-related case studies, we reflect on the different types of case study design, the specific research questions this approach can help answer, the data sources that tend to be used, and the particular advantages and disadvantages of employing this methodological approach.

The paper concludes with key pointers to aid those designing and appraising proposals for conducting case study research, and a checklist to help readers assess the quality of case study reports. The case study approach is particularly useful to employ when there is a need to obtain an in-depth appreciation of an issue, event or phenomenon of interest, in its natural real-life context. Our aim in writing this piece is to provide insights into when to consider employing this approach and an overview of key methodological considerations in relation to the design, planning, analysis, interpretation and reporting of case studies. The illustrative 'grand round', 'case report' and 'case series' have a long tradition in clinical practice and research.

Presenting detailed critiques, typically of one or more patients, aims to provide insights into aspects of the clinical case and, in doing so, illustrate broader lessons that may be learnt. In research, the conceptually-related case study approach can be used, for example, to describe in detail a patient's episode of care, explore professional attitudes to and experiences of a new policy initiative or service development or more generally to 'investigate contemporary phenomena within its real-life context' [ 1 ]. Based on our experiences of conducting a range of case studies, we reflect on when to consider using this approach, discuss the key steps involved and illustrate, with examples, some of the practical challenges of attaining an in-depth understanding of a 'case' as an integrated whole.

In keeping with previously published work, we acknowledge the importance of theory to underpin the design, selection, conduct and interpretation of case studies[ 2 ]. In so doing, we make passing reference to the different epistemological approaches used in case study research by key theoreticians and methodologists in this field of enquiry. This paper is structured around the following main questions: What is a case study? What are case studies used for? How are case studies conducted? What are the potential pitfalls and how can these be avoided? Example of a case study investigating the reasons for differences in recruitment rates of minority ethnic people in asthma research[ 3 ].

Example of a case study investigating the process of planning and implementing a service in Primary Care Organisations[ 4 ]. Example of a case study investigating the introduction of the electronic health records[ 5 ]. Example of a case study investigating the formal and informal ways students learn about patient safety[ 6 ]. A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context. It is an established research design that is used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, particularly in the social sciences. It is for this reason sometimes referred to as a "naturalistic" design; this is in contrast to an "experimental" design such as a randomised controlled trial in which the investigator seeks to exert control over and manipulate the variable s of interest.

Stake's work has been particularly influential in defining the case study approach to scientific enquiry. He has helpfully characterised three main types of case study: intrinsic , instrumental and collective [ 8 ]. An intrinsic case study is typically undertaken to learn about a unique phenomenon. The researcher should define the uniqueness of the phenomenon, which distinguishes it from all others. In contrast, the instrumental case study uses a particular case some of which may be better than others to gain a broader appreciation of an issue or phenomenon. The collective case study involves studying multiple cases simultaneously or sequentially in an attempt to generate a still broader appreciation of a particular issue.

These are however not necessarily mutually exclusive categories. According to Yin, case studies can be used to explain, describe or explore events or phenomena in the everyday contexts in which they occur[ 1 ]. In contrast to experimental designs, which seek to test a specific hypothesis through deliberately manipulating the environment like, for example, in a randomised controlled trial giving a new drug to randomly selected individuals and then comparing outcomes with controls ,[ 9 ] the case study approach lends itself well to capturing information on more explanatory ' how ', 'what' and ' why ' questions, such as ' how is the intervention being implemented and received on the ground? The case study approach can offer additional insights into what gaps exist in its delivery or why one implementation strategy might be chosen over another.

Or whether the wish is to obtain a more naturalistic understanding of an issue? The former is ideally studied using a controlled experimental design, whereas the latter is more appropriately studied using a case study design. Whilst such a schema can be conceptually helpful, it may be appropriate to draw on more than one approach in any case study, particularly in the context of conducting health services research. Doolin has, for example, noted that in the context of undertaking interpretative case studies, researchers can usefully draw on a critical, reflective perspective which seeks to take into account the wider social and political environment that has shaped the case[ 11 ].

Here, we focus on the main stages of research activity when planning and undertaking a case study; the crucial stages are: defining the case; selecting the case s ; collecting and analysing the data; interpreting data; and reporting the findings. Carefully formulated research question s , informed by the existing literature and a prior appreciation of the theoretical issues and setting s , are all important in appropriately and succinctly defining the case[ 8 , 12 ]. Crucially, each case should have a pre-defined boundary which clarifies the nature and time period covered by the case study i. A theory driven approach to defining the case may help generate knowledge that is potentially transferable to a range of clinical contexts and behaviours; using theory is also likely to result in a more informed appreciation of, for example, how and why interventions have succeeded or failed[ 13 ].

Example of a checklist for rating a case study proposal[ 8 ]. Our focus was on how the technology was being implemented. However, if the primary research interest had been on the social and organisational dimensions of implementation, we might have defined our case differently as a grouping of healthcare professionals e. The precise beginning and end of the case may however prove difficult to define. Pursuing this same example, when does the process of implementation and adoption of an electronic health record system really begin or end? Such judgements will inevitably be influenced by a range of factors, including the research question, theory of interest, the scope and richness of the gathered data and the resources available to the research team.

The decision on how to select the case s to study is a very important one that merits some reflection. In an intrinsic case study, the case is selected on its own merits[ 8 ]. The case is selected not because it is representative of other cases, but because of its uniqueness, which is of genuine interest to the researchers. In another example of an intrinsic case study, Hellstrom et al. For an instrumental case study, selecting a "typical" case can work well[ 8 ]. In contrast to the intrinsic case study, the particular case which is chosen is of less importance than selecting a case that allows the researcher to investigate an issue or phenomenon.

For example, in order to gain an understanding of doctors' responses to health policy initiatives, Som undertook an instrumental case study interviewing clinicians who had a range of responsibilities for clinical governance in one NHS acute hospital trust[ 17 ]. Sampling a "deviant" or "atypical" case may however prove even more informative, potentially enabling the researcher to identify causal processes, generate hypotheses and develop theory. In collective or multiple case studies, a number of cases are carefully selected. Choosing a "typical" case may enable the findings to be generalised to theory i. analytical generalisation or to test theory by replicating the findings in a second or even a third case i.

replication logic [ 1 ]. Yin suggests two or three literal replications i. predicting similar results if the theory is straightforward and five or more if the theory is more subtle. However, critics might argue that selecting 'cases' in this way is insufficiently reflexive and ill-suited to the complexities of contemporary healthcare organisations. The selected case study site s should allow the research team access to the group of individuals, the organisation, the processes or whatever else constitutes the chosen unit of analysis for the study. Access is therefore a central consideration; the researcher needs to come to know the case study site s well and to work cooperatively with them. Selected cases need to be not only interesting but also hospitable to the inquiry [ 8 ] if they are to be informative and answer the research question s.

Case study sites may also be pre-selected for the researcher, with decisions being influenced by key stakeholders. This prominent stakeholder had already selected the NHS sites through a competitive bidding process to be early adopters of the electronic health record systems and had negotiated contracts that detailed the deployment timelines. It is also important to consider in advance the likely burden and risks associated with participation for those who or the site s which comprise the case study. Of particular importance is the obligation for the researcher to think through the ethical implications of the study e.

The outcome of providing this information might be that the emotive burden associated with participation, or the organisational disruption associated with supporting the fieldwork, is considered so high that the individuals or sites decide against participation. In our example of evaluating implementations of electronic health record systems, given the restricted number of early adopter sites available to us, we sought purposively to select a diverse range of implementation cases among those that were available[ 5 ]. We chose a mixture of teaching, non-teaching and Foundation Trust hospitals, and examples of each of the three electronic health record systems procured centrally by the NPfIT. At one recruited site, it quickly became apparent that access was problematic because of competing demands on that organisation.

Recognising the importance of full access and co-operative working for generating rich data, the research team decided not to pursue work at that site and instead to focus on other recruited sites. In order to develop a thorough understanding of the case, the case study approach usually involves the collection of multiple sources of evidence, using a range of quantitative e. questionnaires, audits and analysis of routinely collected healthcare data and more commonly qualitative techniques e. interviews, focus groups and observations. The use of multiple sources of data data triangulation has been advocated as a way of increasing the internal validity of a study i. the extent to which the method is appropriate to answer the research question [ 8 , 18 - 21 ].

Brazier and colleagues used a mixed-methods case study approach to investigate the impact of a cancer care programme[ 22 ]. Here, quantitative measures were collected with questionnaires before, and five months after, the start of the intervention which did not yield any statistically significant results. Qualitative interviews with patients however helped provide an insight into potentially beneficial process-related aspects of the programme, such as greater, perceived patient involvement in care. The authors reported how this case study approach provided a number of contextual factors likely to influence the effectiveness of the intervention and which were not likely to have been obtained from quantitative methods alone. In collective or multiple case studies, data collection needs to be flexible enough to allow a detailed description of each individual case to be developed e.

the nature of different cancer care programmes , before considering the emerging similarities and differences in cross-case comparisons e. to explore why one programme is more effective than another. It is important that data sources from different cases are, where possible, broadly comparable for this purpose even though they may vary in nature and depth. Making sense and offering a coherent interpretation of the typically disparate sources of data whether qualitative alone or together with quantitative is far from straightforward. Repeated reviewing and sorting of the voluminous and detail-rich data are integral to the process of analysis. In collective case studies, it is helpful to analyse data relating to the individual component cases first, before making comparisons across cases.

Attention needs to be paid to variations within each case and, where relevant, the relationship between different causes, effects and outcomes[ 23 ]. Data will need to be organised and coded to allow the key issues, both derived from the literature and emerging from the dataset, to be easily retrieved at a later stage. An initial coding frame can help capture these issues and can be applied systematically to the whole dataset with the aid of a qualitative data analysis software package.

They were successful. Thanks a lot for everything you do for people like me! letters, photographs, notes or official document e. Article Related content Article metrics Rapid responses Response. A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context. However, this isn't always a problem, especially if generalization is not one of the study's goals.

Categories:

• Online Essays
• Essay Online
• Essay Website
• Essay Experts
• Custom Essays